Skip to main content
Version: 0.42

Values and Types

Values are objects, like for example booleans, integers, or arrays. Values are typed.

Booleans​

The two boolean values true and false have the type Bool.

Numeric Literals​

Numbers can be written in various bases. Numbers are assumed to be decimal by default. Non-decimal literals have a specific prefix.

Numeral systemPrefixCharacters
DecimalNoneone or more numbers (0 to 9)
Binary0bone or more zeros or ones (0 or 1)
Octal0oone or more numbers in the range 0 to 7
Hexadecimal0xone or more numbers, or characters a to f, lowercase or uppercase

_25
// A decimal number
_25
//
_25
1234567890 // is `1234567890`
_25
_25
// A binary number
_25
//
_25
0b101010 // is `42`
_25
_25
// An octal number
_25
//
_25
0o12345670 // is `2739128`
_25
_25
// A hexadecimal number
_25
//
_25
0x1234567890ABCabc // is `1311768467294898876`
_25
_25
// Invalid: unsupported prefix 0z
_25
//
_25
0z0
_25
_25
// A decimal number with leading zeros. Not an octal number!
_25
00123 // is `123`
_25
_25
// A binary number with several trailing zeros.
_25
0b001000 // is `8`

Decimal numbers may contain underscores (_) to logically separate components.


_10
let largeNumber = 1_000_000
_10
_10
// Invalid: Value is not a number literal, but a variable.
_10
let notNumber = _123

Underscores are allowed for all numeral systems.


_10
let binaryNumber = 0b10_11_01

Integers​

Integers are numbers without a fractional part. They are either signed (positive, zero, or negative) or unsigned (positive or zero).

Signed integer types which check for overflow and underflow have an Int prefix and can represent values in the following ranges:

  • Int8: -2^7 through 2^7 − 1 (-128 through 127)
  • Int16: -2^15 through 2^15 − 1 (-32768 through 32767)
  • Int32: -2^31 through 2^31 − 1 (-2147483648 through 2147483647)
  • Int64: -2^63 through 2^63 − 1 (-9223372036854775808 through 9223372036854775807)
  • Int128: -2^127 through 2^127 − 1
  • Int256: -2^255 through 2^255 − 1

Unsigned integer types which check for overflow and underflow have a UInt prefix and can represent values in the following ranges:

  • UInt8: 0 through 2^8 − 1 (255)
  • UInt16: 0 through 2^16 − 1 (65535)
  • UInt32: 0 through 2^32 − 1 (4294967295)
  • UInt64: 0 through 2^64 − 1 (18446744073709551615)
  • UInt128: 0 through 2^128 − 1
  • UInt256: 0 through 2^256 − 1

Unsigned integer types which do not check for overflow and underflow, i.e. wrap around, have the Word prefix and can represent values in the following ranges:

  • Word8: 0 through 2^8 − 1 (255)
  • Word16: 0 through 2^16 − 1 (65535)
  • Word32: 0 through 2^32 − 1 (4294967295)
  • Word64: 0 through 2^64 − 1 (18446744073709551615)

The types are independent types, i.e. not subtypes of each other.

See the section about arithmetic operators for further information about the behavior of the different integer types.


_10
// Declare a constant that has type `UInt8` and the value 10.
_10
let smallNumber: UInt8 = 10


_10
// Invalid: negative literal cannot be used as an unsigned integer
_10
//
_10
let invalidNumber: UInt8 = -10

In addition, the arbitrary precision integer type Int is provided.


_10
let veryLargeNumber: Int = 10000000000000000000000000000000

Integer literals are inferred to have type Int, or if the literal occurs in a position that expects an explicit type, e.g. in a variable declaration with an explicit type annotation.


_10
let someNumber = 123
_10
_10
// `someNumber` has type `Int`

Negative integers are encoded in two's complement representation.

Integer types are not converted automatically. Types must be explicitly converted, which can be done by calling the constructor of the type with the integer type.


_15
let x: Int8 = 1
_15
let y: Int16 = 2
_15
_15
// Invalid: the types of the operands, `Int8` and `Int16` are incompatible.
_15
let z = x + y
_15
_15
// Explicitly convert `x` from `Int8` to `Int16`.
_15
let a = Int16(x) + y
_15
_15
// `a` has type `Int16`
_15
_15
// Invalid: The integer literal is expected to be of type `Int8`,
_15
// but the large integer literal does not fit in the range of `Int8`.
_15
//
_15
let b = x + 1000000000000000000000000

Integer Functions​

Integers have multiple built-in functions you can use.


  • _10
    fun toString(): String

    Returns the string representation of the integer.


    _10
    let answer = 42
    _10
    _10
    answer.toString() // is "42"


  • _10
    fun toBigEndianBytes(): [UInt8]

    Returns the byte array representation ([UInt8]) in big-endian order of the integer.


    _10
    let largeNumber = 1234567890
    _10
    _10
    largeNumber.toBigEndianBytes() // is `[73, 150, 2, 210]`

All integer types support the following functions:


  • _10
    fun T.fromString(_ input: String): T?

    Attempts to parse an integer value from a base-10 encoded string, returning nil if the string is invalid.

    For a given integer n of type T, T.fromString(n.toString()) is equivalent to wrapping n up in an optional.

    Strings are invalid if:

    • they contain non-digit characters
    • they don't fit in the target type

    For signed integer types like Int64, and Int, the string may optionally begin with + or - sign prefix.

    For unsigned integer types like Word64, UInt64, and UInt, sign prefices are not allowed.

    Examples:


    _10
    let fortyTwo: Int64? = Int64.fromString("42") // ok
    _10
    _10
    let twenty: UInt? = UInt.fromString("20") // ok
    _10
    _10
    let nilWord: Word8? = Word8.fromString("1024") // nil, out of bounds
    _10
    _10
    let negTwenty: Int? = Int.fromString("-20") // ok


  • _10
    fun T.fromBigEndianBytes(_ bytes: [UInt8]): T?

    Attempts to parse an integer value from a byte array representation ([UInt8]) in big-endian order, returning nil if the input bytes are invalid.

    For a given integer n of type T, T.fromBigEndianBytes(n.toBigEndianBytes()) is equivalent to wrapping n up in an optional.

    The bytes are invalid if:

    • length of the bytes array exceeds the number of bytes needed for the target type
    • they don't fit in the target type

    Examples:


    _10
    let fortyTwo: UInt32? = UInt32.fromBigEndianBytes([42]) // ok
    _10
    _10
    let twenty: UInt? = UInt.fromBigEndianBytes([0, 0, 20]) // ok
    _10
    _10
    let nilWord: Word8? = Word8.fromBigEndianBytes("[0, 22, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]") // nil, out of bounds
    _10
    _10
    let nilWord2: Word8? = Word8.fromBigEndianBytes("[0, 0]") // nil, size (2) exceeds number of bytes needed for Word8 (1)
    _10
    _10
    let negativeNumber: Int64? = Int64.fromBigEndianBytes([128, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1]) // ok -9223372036854775807

Fixed-Point Numbers​

info

🚧 Status: Currently only the 64-bit wide Fix64 and UFix64 types are available. More fixed-point number types will be added in a future release.

Fixed-point numbers are useful for representing fractional values. They have a fixed number of digits after decimal point.

They are essentially integers which are scaled by a factor. For example, the value 1.23 can be represented as 1230 with a scaling factor of 1/1000. The scaling factor is the same for all values of the same type and stays the same during calculations.

Fixed-point numbers in Cadence have a scaling factor with a power of 10, instead of a power of 2, i.e. they are decimal, not binary.

Signed fixed-point number types have the prefix Fix, have the following factors, and can represent values in the following ranges:

  • Fix64: Factor 1/100,000,000; -92233720368.54775808 through 92233720368.54775807

Unsigned fixed-point number types have the prefix UFix, have the following factors, and can represent values in the following ranges:

  • UFix64: Factor 1/100,000,000; 0.0 through 184467440737.09551615

Fixed-Point Number Functions​

Fixed-Point numbers have multiple built-in functions you can use.


  • _10
    fun toString(): String

    Returns the string representation of the fixed-point number.


    _10
    let fix = 1.23
    _10
    _10
    fix.toString() // is "1.23000000"


  • _10
    fun toBigEndianBytes(): [UInt8]

    Returns the byte array representation ([UInt8]) in big-endian order of the fixed-point number.


    _10
    let fix = 1.23
    _10
    _10
    fix.toBigEndianBytes() // is `[0, 0, 0, 0, 7, 84, 212, 192]`

All fixed-point types support the following functions:


  • _10
    fun T.fromString(_ input: String): T?

    Attempts to parse a fixed-point value from a base-10 encoded string, returning nil if the string is invalid.

    For a given fixed-point numeral n of type T, T.fromString(n.toString()) is equivalent to wrapping n up in an optional.

    Strings are invalid if:

    • they contain non-digit characters.
    • they don't fit in the target type.
    • they're missing a decimal or fractional component. For example, both "0." and ".1" are invalid strings, but "0.1" is accepted.

    For signed types like Fix64, the string may optionally begin with + or - sign prefix.

    For unsigned types like UFix64, sign prefices are not allowed.

    Examples:


    _11
    let nil1: UFix64? = UFix64.fromString("0.") // nil, fractional part is required
    _11
    _11
    let nil2: UFix64? = UFix64.fromString(".1") // nil, decimal part is required
    _11
    _11
    let smol: UFix64? = UFix64.fromString("0.1") // ok
    _11
    _11
    let smolString: String = "-0.1"
    _11
    _11
    let nil3: UFix64? = UFix64.fromString(smolString) // nil, unsigned types don't allow a sign prefix
    _11
    _11
    let smolFix64: Fix64? = Fix64.fromString(smolString) // ok


  • _10
    fun T.fromBigEndianBytes(_ bytes: [UInt8]): T?

    Attempts to parse an integer value from a byte array representation ([UInt8]) in big-endian order, returning nil if the input bytes are invalid.

    For a given integer n of type T, T.fromBigEndianBytes(n.toBigEndianBytes()) is equivalent to wrapping n up in an optional.

    The bytes are invalid if:

    • length of the bytes array exceeds the number of bytes needed for the target type
    • they don't fit in the target type

    Examples:


    _10
    let fortyTwo: UFix64? = UFix64.fromBigEndianBytes([0, 0, 0, 0, 250, 86, 234, 0]) // ok, 42.0
    _10
    _10
    let nilWord: UFix64? = UFix64.fromBigEndianBytes("[100, 22, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]") // nil, out of bounds
    _10
    _10
    let nilWord2: Fix64? = Fix64.fromBigEndianBytes("[0, 22, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]") // // nil, size (9) exceeds number of bytes needed for Fix64 (8)
    _10
    _10
    let negativeNumber: Fix64? = Fix64.fromBigEndianBytes([255, 255, 255, 255, 250, 10, 31, 0]) // ok, -1

Minimum and maximum values​

The minimum and maximum values for all integer and fixed-point number types are available through the fields min and max.

For example:


_10
let max = UInt8.max
_10
// `max` is 255, the maximum value of the type `UInt8`


_10
let max = UFix64.max
_10
// `max` is 184467440737.09551615, the maximum value of the type `UFix64`

Saturation Arithmetic​

Integers and fixed-point numbers support saturation arithmetic: Arithmetic operations, such as addition or multiplications, are saturating at the numeric bounds instead of overflowing.

If the result of an operation is greater than the maximum value of the operands' type, the maximum is returned. If the result is lower than the minimum of the operands' type, the minimum is returned.

Saturating addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are provided as functions with the prefix saturating:

  • Int8, Int16, Int32, Int64, Int128, Int256, Fix64:

    • saturatingAdd
    • saturatingSubtract
    • saturatingMultiply
    • saturatingDivide
  • Int:

    • none
  • UInt8, UInt16, UInt32, UInt64, UInt128, UInt256, UFix64:

    • saturatingAdd
    • saturatingSubtract
    • saturatingMultiply
  • UInt:

    • saturatingSubtract

_10
let a: UInt8 = 200
_10
let b: UInt8 = 100
_10
let result = a.saturatingAdd(b)
_10
// `result` is 255, the maximum value of the type `UInt8`

Floating-Point Numbers​

There is no support for floating point numbers.

Smart Contracts are not intended to work with values with error margins and therefore floating point arithmetic is not appropriate here.

Instead, consider using fixed point numbers.

Addresses​

The type Address represents an address. Addresses are unsigned integers with a size of 64 bits (8 bytes). Hexadecimal integer literals can be used to create address values.


_13
// Declare a constant that has type `Address`.
_13
//
_13
let someAddress: Address = 0x436164656E636521
_13
_13
// Invalid: Initial value is not compatible with type `Address`,
_13
// it is not a number.
_13
//
_13
let notAnAddress: Address = ""
_13
_13
// Invalid: Initial value is not compatible with type `Address`.
_13
// The integer literal is valid, however, it is larger than 64 bits.
_13
//
_13
let alsoNotAnAddress: Address = 0x436164656E63652146757265766572

Integer literals are not inferred to be an address.


_10
// Declare a number. Even though it happens to be a valid address,
_10
// it is not inferred as it.
_10
//
_10
let aNumber = 0x436164656E636521
_10
_10
// `aNumber` has type `Int`

Address can also be created using a byte array or string.


_17
// Declare an address with hex representation as 0x436164656E636521.
_17
let someAddress: Address = Address.fromBytes([67, 97, 100, 101, 110, 99, 101, 33])
_17
_17
// Invalid: Provided value is not compatible with type `Address`. The function panics.
_17
let invalidAddress: Address = Address.fromBytes([12, 34, 56, 11, 22, 33, 44, 55, 66, 77, 88, 99, 111])
_17
_17
// Declare an address with the string representation as "0x436164656E636521".
_17
let addressFromString: Address? = Address.fromString("0x436164656E636521")
_17
_17
// Invalid: Provided value does not have the "0x" prefix. Returns Nil
_17
let addressFromStringWithoutPrefix: Address? = Address.fromString("436164656E636521")
_17
_17
// Invalid: Provided value is an invalid hex string. Return Nil.
_17
let invalidAddressForInvalidHex: Address? = Address.fromString("0xZZZ")
_17
_17
// Invalid: Provided value is larger than 64 bits. Return Nil.
_17
let invalidAddressForOverflow: Address? = Address.fromString("0x436164656E63652146757265766572")

Address Functions​

Addresses have multiple built-in functions you can use.


  • _10
    fun toString(): String

    Returns the string representation of the address. The result has a 0x prefix and is zero-padded.


    _10
    let someAddress: Address = 0x436164656E636521
    _10
    someAddress.toString() // is "0x436164656E636521"
    _10
    _10
    let shortAddress: Address = 0x1
    _10
    shortAddress.toString() // is "0x0000000000000001"


  • _10
    fun toBytes(): [UInt8]

    Returns the byte array representation ([UInt8]) of the address.


    _10
    let someAddress: Address = 0x436164656E636521
    _10
    _10
    someAddress.toBytes() // is `[67, 97, 100, 101, 110, 99, 101, 33]`

AnyStruct and AnyResource​

AnyStruct is the top type of all non-resource types, i.e., all non-resource types are a subtype of it.

AnyResource is the top type of all resource types.


_37
// Declare a variable that has the type `AnyStruct`.
_37
// Any non-resource typed value can be assigned to it, for example an integer,
_37
// but not resource-typed values.
_37
//
_37
var someStruct: AnyStruct = 1
_37
_37
// Assign a value with a different non-resource type, `Bool`.
_37
someStruct = true
_37
_37
// Declare a structure named `TestStruct`, create an instance of it,
_37
// and assign it to the `AnyStruct`-typed variable
_37
//
_37
struct TestStruct {}
_37
_37
let testStruct = TestStruct()
_37
_37
someStruct = testStruct
_37
_37
// Declare a resource named `TestResource`
_37
_37
resource TestResource {}
_37
_37
// Declare a variable that has the type `AnyResource`.
_37
// Any resource-typed value can be assigned to it,
_37
// but not non-resource typed values.
_37
//
_37
var someResource: @AnyResource <- create TestResource()
_37
_37
// Invalid: Resource-typed values can not be assigned
_37
// to `AnyStruct`-typed variables
_37
//
_37
someStruct <- create TestResource()
_37
_37
// Invalid: Non-resource typed values can not be assigned
_37
// to `AnyResource`-typed variables
_37
//
_37
someResource = 1

However, using AnyStruct and AnyResource does not opt-out of type checking. It is invalid to access fields and call functions on these types, as they have no fields and functions.


_10
// Declare a variable that has the type `AnyStruct`.
_10
// The initial value is an integer,
_10
// but the variable still has the explicit type `AnyStruct`.
_10
//
_10
let a: AnyStruct = 1
_10
_10
// Invalid: Operator cannot be used for an `AnyStruct` value (`a`, left-hand side)
_10
// and an `Int` value (`2`, right-hand side).
_10
//
_10
a + 2

AnyStruct and AnyResource may be used like other types, for example, they may be the element type of arrays or be the element type of an optional type.


_13
// Declare a variable that has the type `[AnyStruct]`,
_13
// i.e. an array of elements of any non-resource type.
_13
//
_13
let anyValues: [AnyStruct] = [1, "2", true]
_13
_13
// Declare a variable that has the type `AnyStruct?`,
_13
// i.e. an optional type of any non-resource type.
_13
//
_13
var maybeSomething: AnyStruct? = 42
_13
_13
maybeSomething = "twenty-four"
_13
_13
maybeSomething = nil

AnyStruct is also the super-type of all non-resource optional types, and AnyResource is the super-type of all resource optional types.


_10
let maybeInt: Int? = 1
_10
let anything: AnyStruct = maybeInt

Conditional downcasting allows coercing a value which has the type AnyStruct or AnyResource back to its original type.

Optionals​

Optionals are values which can represent the absence of a value. Optionals have two cases: either there is a value, or there is nothing.

An optional type is declared using the ? suffix for another type. For example, Int is a non-optional integer, and Int? is an optional integer, i.e. either nothing, or an integer.

The value representing nothing is nil.


_17
// Declare a constant which has an optional integer type,
_17
// with nil as its initial value.
_17
//
_17
let a: Int? = nil
_17
_17
// Declare a constant which has an optional integer type,
_17
// with 42 as its initial value.
_17
//
_17
let b: Int? = 42
_17
_17
// Invalid: `b` has type `Int?`, which does not support arithmetic.
_17
b + 23
_17
_17
// Invalid: Declare a constant with a non-optional integer type `Int`,
_17
// but the initial value is `nil`, which in this context has type `Int?`.
_17
//
_17
let x: Int = nil

Optionals can be created for any value, not just for literals.


_15
// Declare a constant which has a non-optional integer type,
_15
// with 1 as its initial value.
_15
//
_15
let x = 1
_15
_15
// Declare a constant which has an optional integer type.
_15
// An optional with the value of `x` is created.
_15
//
_15
let y: Int? = x
_15
_15
// Declare a variable which has an optional any type, i.e. the variable
_15
// may be `nil`, or any other value.
_15
// An optional with the value of `x` is created.
_15
//
_15
var z: AnyStruct? = x

A non-optional type is a subtype of its optional type.


_10
var a: Int? = nil
_10
let b = 2
_10
a = b
_10
_10
// `a` is `2`

Optional types may be contained in other types, for example arrays or even optionals.


_10
// Declare a constant which has an array type of optional integers.
_10
let xs: [Int?] = [1, nil, 2, nil]
_10
_10
// Declare a constant which has a double optional type.
_10
//
_10
let doubleOptional: Int?? = nil

See the optional operators section for information on how to work with optionals.

Never​

Never is the bottom type, i.e., it is a subtype of all types. There is no value that has type Never. Never can be used as the return type for functions that never return normally. For example, it is the return type of the function panic.


_17
// Declare a function named `crashAndBurn` which will never return,
_17
// because it calls the function named `panic`, which never returns.
_17
//
_17
fun crashAndBurn(): Never {
_17
panic("An unrecoverable error occurred")
_17
}
_17
_17
// Invalid: Declare a constant with a `Never` type, but the initial value is an integer.
_17
//
_17
let x: Never = 1
_17
_17
// Invalid: Declare a function which returns an invalid return value `nil`,
_17
// which is not a value of type `Never`.
_17
//
_17
fun returnNever(): Never {
_17
return nil
_17
}

Strings and Characters​

Strings are collections of characters. Strings have the type String, and characters have the type Character. Strings can be used to work with text in a Unicode-compliant way. Strings are immutable.

String and character literals are enclosed in double quotation marks (").


_10
let someString = "Hello, world!"

String literals may contain escape sequences. An escape sequence starts with a backslash (\):

  • \0: Null character
  • \\: Backslash
  • \t: Horizontal tab
  • \n: Line feed
  • \r: Carriage return
  • \": Double quotation mark
  • \': Single quotation mark
  • \u: A Unicode scalar value, written as \u{x}, where x is a 1–8 digit hexadecimal number which needs to be a valid Unicode scalar value, i.e., in the range 0 to 0xD7FF and 0xE000 to 0x10FFFF inclusive

_10
// Declare a constant which contains two lines of text
_10
// (separated by the line feed character `\n`), and ends
_10
// with a thumbs up emoji, which has code point U+1F44D (0x1F44D).
_10
//
_10
let thumbsUpText =
_10
"This is the first line.\nThis is the second line with an emoji: \u{1F44D}"

The type Character represents a single, human-readable character. Characters are extended grapheme clusters, which consist of one or more Unicode scalars.

For example, the single character ü can be represented in several ways in Unicode. First, it can be represented by a single Unicode scalar value ü ("LATIN SMALL LETTER U WITH DIAERESIS", code point U+00FC). Second, the same single character can be represented by two Unicode scalar values: u ("LATIN SMALL LETTER U", code point U+0075), and "COMBINING DIAERESIS" (code point U+0308). The combining Unicode scalar value is applied to the scalar before it, which turns a u into a ü.

Still, both variants represent the same human-readable character ü.


_10
let singleScalar: Character = "\u{FC}"
_10
// `singleScalar` is `ü`
_10
let twoScalars: Character = "\u{75}\u{308}"
_10
// `twoScalars` is `ü`

Another example where multiple Unicode scalar values are rendered as a single, human-readable character is a flag emoji. These emojis consist of two "REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER" Unicode scalar values.


_10
// Declare a constant for a string with a single character, the emoji
_10
// for the Canadian flag, which consists of two Unicode scalar values:
_10
// - REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER C (U+1F1E8)
_10
// - REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER A (U+1F1E6)
_10
//
_10
let canadianFlag: Character = "\u{1F1E8}\u{1F1E6}"
_10
// `canadianFlag` is `🇨🇦`

String Fields and Functions​

Strings have multiple built-in functions you can use:


  • _10
    let length: Int

    Returns the number of characters in the string as an integer.


    _10
    let example = "hello"
    _10
    _10
    // Find the number of elements of the string.
    _10
    let length = example.length
    _10
    // `length` is `5`


  • _10
    let utf8: [UInt8]

    The byte array of the UTF-8 encoding


    _10
    let flowers = "Flowers \u{1F490}"
    _10
    let bytes = flowers.utf8
    _10
    // `bytes` is `[70, 108, 111, 119, 101, 114, 115, 32, 240, 159, 146, 144]`


  • _10
    fun concat(_ other: String): String

    Concatenates the string other to the end of the original string, but does not modify the original string. This function creates a new string whose length is the sum of the lengths of the string the function is called on and the string given as a parameter.


    _10
    let example = "hello"
    _10
    let new = "world"
    _10
    _10
    // Concatenate the new string onto the example string and return the new string.
    _10
    let helloWorld = example.concat(new)
    _10
    // `helloWorld` is now `"helloworld"`


  • _10
    fun slice(from: Int, upTo: Int): String

    Returns a string slice of the characters in the given string from start index from up to, but not including, the end index upTo. This function creates a new string whose length is upTo - from. It does not modify the original string. If either of the parameters are out of the bounds of the string, or the indices are invalid (from > upTo), then the function will fail.


    _11
    let example = "helloworld"
    _11
    _11
    // Create a new slice of part of the original string.
    _11
    let slice = example.slice(from: 3, upTo: 6)
    _11
    // `slice` is now `"low"`
    _11
    _11
    // Run-time error: Out of bounds index, the program aborts.
    _11
    let outOfBounds = example.slice(from: 2, upTo: 10)
    _11
    _11
    // Run-time error: Invalid indices, the program aborts.
    _11
    let invalidIndices = example.slice(from: 2, upTo: 1)


  • _10
    fun decodeHex(): [UInt8]

    Returns an array containing the bytes represented by the given hexadecimal string.

    The given string must only contain hexadecimal characters and must have an even length. If the string is malformed, the program aborts


    _10
    let example = "436164656e636521"
    _10
    _10
    example.decodeHex() // is `[67, 97, 100, 101, 110, 99, 101, 33]`


  • _10
    fun toLower(): String

    Returns a string where all upper case letters are replaced with lowercase characters


    _10
    let example = "Flowers"
    _10
    _10
    example.toLower() // is `flowers`

The String type also provides the following functions:


  • _10
    fun String.encodeHex(_ data: [UInt8]): String

    Returns a hexadecimal string for the given byte array


    _10
    let data = [1 as UInt8, 2, 3, 0xCA, 0xDE]
    _10
    _10
    String.encodeHex(data) // is `"010203cade"`

Strings are also indexable, returning a Character value.


_10
let str = "abc"
_10
let c = str[0] // is the Character "a"


  • _10
    fun String.fromUTF8(_ input: [UInt8]): String?

    Attempts to convert a UTF-8 encoded byte array into a String. This function returns nil if the byte array contains invalid UTF-8, such as incomplete codepoint sequences or undefined graphemes.

    For a given string s, String.fromUTF8(s.utf8) is equivalent to wrapping s up in an optional.

Character Fields and Functions​

Character values can be converted into String values using the toString function:


  • _10
    fun toString(): String`

    Returns the string representation of the character.


    _10
    let c: Character = "x"
    _10
    _10
    c.toString() // is "x"


  • _10
    fun String.fromCharacters(_ characters: [Character]): String

    Builds a new String value from an array of Characters. Because Strings are immutable, this operation makes a copy of the input array.


    _10
    let rawUwU: [Character] = ["U", "w", "U"]
    _10
    let uwu: String = String.fromCharacters(rawUwU) // "UwU"

Arrays​

Arrays are mutable, ordered collections of values. Arrays may contain a value multiple times. Array literals start with an opening square bracket [ and end with a closing square bracket ].


_10
// An empty array
_10
//
_10
[]
_10
_10
// An array with integers
_10
//
_10
[1, 2, 3]

Array Types​

Arrays either have a fixed size or are variably sized, i.e., elements can be added and removed.

Fixed-size array types have the form [T; N], where T is the element type, and N is the size of the array. N has to be statically known, meaning that it needs to be an integer literal. For example, a fixed-size array of 3 Int8 elements has the type [Int8; 3].

Variable-size array types have the form [T], where T is the element type. For example, the type [Int16] specifies a variable-size array of elements that have type Int16.

All values in an array must have a type which is a subtype of the array's element type (T).

It is important to understand that arrays are value types and are only ever copied when used as an initial value for a constant or variable, when assigning to a variable, when used as function argument, or when returned from a function call.


_26
let size = 2
_26
// Invalid: Array-size must be an integer literal
_26
let numbers: [Int; size] = []
_26
_26
// Declare a fixed-sized array of integers
_26
// which always contains exactly two elements.
_26
//
_26
let array: [Int8; 2] = [1, 2]
_26
_26
// Declare a fixed-sized array of fixed-sized arrays of integers.
_26
// The inner arrays always contain exactly three elements,
_26
// the outer array always contains two elements.
_26
//
_26
let arrays: [[Int16; 3]; 2] = [
_26
[1, 2, 3],
_26
[4, 5, 6]
_26
]
_26
_26
// Declare a variable length array of integers
_26
var variableLengthArray: [Int] = []
_26
_26
// Mixing values with different types is possible
_26
// by declaring the expected array type
_26
// with the common supertype of all values.
_26
//
_26
let mixedValues: [AnyStruct] = ["some string", 42]

Array types are covariant in their element types. For example, [Int] is a subtype of [AnyStruct]. This is safe because arrays are value types and not reference types.

Array Indexing​

To get the element of an array at a specific index, the indexing syntax can be used: The array is followed by an opening square bracket [, the indexing value, and ends with a closing square bracket ].

Indexes start at 0 for the first element in the array.

Accessing an element which is out of bounds results in a fatal error at run-time and aborts the program.


_14
// Declare an array of integers.
_14
let numbers = [42, 23]
_14
_14
// Get the first number of the array.
_14
//
_14
numbers[0] // is `42`
_14
_14
// Get the second number of the array.
_14
//
_14
numbers[1] // is `23`
_14
_14
// Run-time error: Index 2 is out of bounds, the program aborts.
_14
//
_14
numbers[2]


_10
// Declare an array of arrays of integers, i.e. the type is `[[Int]]`.
_10
let arrays = [[1, 2], [3, 4]]
_10
_10
// Get the first number of the second array.
_10
//
_10
arrays[1][0] // is `3`

To set an element of an array at a specific index, the indexing syntax can be used as well.


_12
// Declare an array of integers.
_12
let numbers = [42, 23]
_12
_12
// Change the second number in the array.
_12
//
_12
// NOTE: The declaration `numbers` is constant, which means that
_12
// the *name* is constant, not the *value* – the value, i.e. the array,
_12
// is mutable and can be changed.
_12
//
_12
numbers[1] = 2
_12
_12
// `numbers` is `[42, 2]`

Array Fields and Functions​

Arrays have multiple built-in fields and functions that can be used to get information about and manipulate the contents of the array.

The field length, and the functions concat, and contains are available for both variable-sized and fixed-sized or variable-sized arrays.


  • _10
    let length: Int

    The number of elements in the array.


    _10
    // Declare an array of integers.
    _10
    let numbers = [42, 23, 31, 12]
    _10
    _10
    // Find the number of elements of the array.
    _10
    let length = numbers.length
    _10
    _10
    // `length` is `4`


  • _10
    fun concat(_ array: T): T

    Concatenates the parameter array to the end of the array the function is called on, but does not modify that array.

    Both arrays must be the same type T.

    This function creates a new array whose length is the sum of the length of the array the function is called on and the length of the array given as the parameter.


    _12
    // Declare two arrays of integers.
    _12
    let numbers = [42, 23, 31, 12]
    _12
    let moreNumbers = [11, 27]
    _12
    _12
    // Concatenate the array `moreNumbers` to the array `numbers`
    _12
    // and declare a new variable for the result.
    _12
    //
    _12
    let allNumbers = numbers.concat(moreNumbers)
    _12
    _12
    // `allNumbers` is `[42, 23, 31, 12, 11, 27]`
    _12
    // `numbers` is still `[42, 23, 31, 12]`
    _12
    // `moreNumbers` is still `[11, 27]`


  • _10
    fun contains(_ element: T): Bool

    Returns true if the given element of type T is in the array.


    _15
    // Declare an array of integers.
    _15
    let numbers = [42, 23, 31, 12]
    _15
    _15
    // Check if the array contains 11.
    _15
    let containsEleven = numbers.contains(11)
    _15
    // `containsEleven` is `false`
    _15
    _15
    // Check if the array contains 12.
    _15
    let containsTwelve = numbers.contains(12)
    _15
    // `containsTwelve` is `true`
    _15
    _15
    // Invalid: Check if the array contains the string "Kitty".
    _15
    // This results in a type error, as the array only contains integers.
    _15
    //
    _15
    let containsKitty = numbers.contains("Kitty")


  • _10
    fun firstIndex(of: T): Int?

    Returns the index of the first element matching the given object in the array, nil if no match. Available if T is not resource-kinded and equatable.


    _10
    // Declare an array of integers.
    _10
    let numbers = [42, 23, 31, 12]
    _10
    _10
    // Check if the array contains 31
    _10
    let index = numbers.firstIndex(of: 31)
    _10
    // `index` is 2
    _10
    _10
    // Check if the array contains 22
    _10
    let index = numbers.firstIndex(of: 22)
    _10
    // `index` is nil


  • _10
    fun slice(from: Int, upTo: Int): [T]

    Returns an array slice of the elements in the given array from start index from up to, but not including, the end index upTo. This function creates a new array whose length is upTo - from. It does not modify the original array. If either of the parameters are out of the bounds of the array, or the indices are invalid (from > upTo), then the function will fail.


    _11
    let example = [1, 2, 3, 4]
    _11
    _11
    // Create a new slice of part of the original array.
    _11
    let slice = example.slice(from: 1, upTo: 3)
    _11
    // `slice` is now `[2, 3]`
    _11
    _11
    // Run-time error: Out of bounds index, the program aborts.
    _11
    let outOfBounds = example.slice(from: 2, upTo: 10)
    _11
    _11
    // Run-time error: Invalid indices, the program aborts.
    _11
    let invalidIndices = example.slice(from: 2, upTo: 1)

Variable-size Array Functions​

The following functions can only be used on variable-sized arrays. It is invalid to use one of these functions on a fixed-sized array.


  • _10
    fun append(_ element: T): Void

    Adds the new element element of type T to the end of the array.

    The new element must be the same type as all the other elements in the array.

    This function mutates the array.


    _10
    // Declare an array of integers.
    _10
    let numbers = [42, 23, 31, 12]
    _10
    _10
    // Add a new element to the array.
    _10
    numbers.append(20)
    _10
    // `numbers` is now `[42, 23, 31, 12, 20]`
    _10
    _10
    // Invalid: The parameter has the wrong type `String`.
    _10
    numbers.append("SneakyString")


  • _10
    fun appendAll(_ array: T): Void

    Adds all the elements from array to the end of the array the function is called on.

    Both arrays must be the same type T.

    This function mutates the array.


    _10
    // Declare an array of integers.
    _10
    let numbers = [42, 23]
    _10
    _10
    // Add new elements to the array.
    _10
    numbers.appendAll([31, 12, 20])
    _10
    // `numbers` is now `[42, 23, 31, 12, 20]`
    _10
    _10
    // Invalid: The parameter has the wrong type `[String]`.
    _10
    numbers.appendAll(["Sneaky", "String"])


  • _10
    fun insert(at: Int, _ element: T): Void

    Inserts the new element element of type T at the given index of the array.

    The new element must be of the same type as the other elements in the array.

    The index must be within the bounds of the array. If the index is outside the bounds, the program aborts.

    The existing element at the supplied index is not overwritten.

    All the elements after the new inserted element are shifted to the right by one.

    This function mutates the array.


    _10
    // Declare an array of integers.
    _10
    let numbers = [42, 23, 31, 12]
    _10
    _10
    // Insert a new element at position 1 of the array.
    _10
    numbers.insert(at: 1, 20)
    _10
    // `numbers` is now `[42, 20, 23, 31, 12]`
    _10
    _10
    // Run-time error: Out of bounds index, the program aborts.
    _10
    numbers.insert(at: 12, 39)


  • _10
    fun remove(at: Int): T

    Removes the element at the given index from the array and returns it.

    The index must be within the bounds of the array. If the index is outside the bounds, the program aborts.

    This function mutates the array.


    _10
    // Declare an array of integers.
    _10
    let numbers = [42, 23, 31]
    _10
    _10
    // Remove element at position 1 of the array.
    _10
    let twentyThree = numbers.remove(at: 1)
    _10
    // `numbers` is now `[42, 31]`
    _10
    // `twentyThree` is `23`
    _10
    _10
    // Run-time error: Out of bounds index, the program aborts.
    _10
    numbers.remove(at: 19)


  • _10
    fun removeFirst(): T

    Removes the first element from the array and returns it.

    The array must not be empty. If the array is empty, the program aborts.

    This function mutates the array.


    _15
    // Declare an array of integers.
    _15
    let numbers = [42, 23]
    _15
    _15
    // Remove the first element of the array.
    _15
    let fortytwo = numbers.removeFirst()
    _15
    // `numbers` is now `[23]`
    _15
    // `fortywo` is `42`
    _15
    _15
    // Remove the first element of the array.
    _15
    let twentyThree = numbers.removeFirst()
    _15
    // `numbers` is now `[]`
    _15
    // `twentyThree` is `23`
    _15
    _15
    // Run-time error: The array is empty, the program aborts.
    _15
    numbers.removeFirst()


  • _10
    fun removeLast(): T

    Removes the last element from the array and returns it.

    The array must not be empty. If the array is empty, the program aborts.

    This function mutates the array.


    _15
    // Declare an array of integers.
    _15
    let numbers = [42, 23]
    _15
    _15
    // Remove the last element of the array.
    _15
    let twentyThree = numbers.removeLast()
    _15
    // `numbers` is now `[42]`
    _15
    // `twentyThree` is `23`
    _15
    _15
    // Remove the last element of the array.
    _15
    let fortyTwo = numbers.removeLast()
    _15
    // `numbers` is now `[]`
    _15
    // `fortyTwo` is `42`
    _15
    _15
    // Run-time error: The array is empty, the program aborts.
    _15
    numbers.removeLast()

Dictionaries​

Dictionaries are mutable, unordered collections of key-value associations. Dictionaries may contain a key only once and may contain a value multiple times.

Dictionary literals start with an opening brace { and end with a closing brace }. Keys are separated from values by a colon, and key-value associations are separated by commas.


_10
// An empty dictionary
_10
//
_10
{}
_10
_10
// A dictionary which associates integers with booleans
_10
//
_10
{
_10
1: true,
_10
2: false
_10
}

Dictionary Types​

Dictionary types have the form {K: V}, where K is the type of the key, and V is the type of the value. For example, a dictionary with Int keys and Bool values has type {Int: Bool}.

In a dictionary, all keys must have a type that is a subtype of the dictionary's key type (K) and all values must have a type that is a subtype of the dictionary's value type (V).


_24
// Declare a constant that has type `{Int: Bool}`,
_24
// a dictionary mapping integers to booleans.
_24
//
_24
let booleans = {
_24
1: true,
_24
0: false
_24
}
_24
_24
// Declare a constant that has type `{Bool: Int}`,
_24
// a dictionary mapping booleans to integers.
_24
//
_24
let integers = {
_24
true: 1,
_24
false: 0
_24
}
_24
_24
// Mixing keys with different types, and mixing values with different types,
_24
// is possible by declaring the expected dictionary type with the common supertype
_24
// of all keys, and the common supertype of all values.
_24
//
_24
let mixedValues: {String: AnyStruct} = {
_24
"a": 1,
_24
"b": true
_24
}

Dictionary types are covariant in their key and value types. For example, {Int: String} is a subtype of {AnyStruct: String} and also a subtype of {Int: AnyStruct}. This is safe because dictionaries are value types and not reference types.

Dictionary Access​

To get the value for a specific key from a dictionary, the access syntax can be used: The dictionary is followed by an opening square bracket [, the key, and ends with a closing square bracket ].

Accessing a key returns an optional: If the key is found in the dictionary, the value for the given key is returned, and if the key is not found, nil is returned.


_17
// Declare a constant that has type `{Int: Bool}`,
_17
// a dictionary mapping integers to booleans.
_17
//
_17
let booleans = {
_17
1: true,
_17
0: false
_17
}
_17
_17
// The result of accessing a key has type `Bool?`.
_17
//
_17
booleans[1] // is `true`
_17
booleans[0] // is `false`
_17
booleans[2] // is `nil`
_17
_17
// Invalid: Accessing a key which does not have type `Int`.
_17
//
_17
booleans["1"]


_12
// Declare a constant that has type `{Bool: Int}`,
_12
// a dictionary mapping booleans to integers.
_12
//
_12
let integers = {
_12
true: 1,
_12
false: 0
_12
}
_12
_12
// The result of accessing a key has type `Int?`
_12
//
_12
integers[true] // is `1`
_12
integers[false] // is `0`

To set the value for a key of a dictionary, the access syntax can be used as well.


_13
// Declare a constant that has type `{Int: Bool}`,
_13
// a dictionary mapping booleans to integers.
_13
//
_13
let booleans = {
_13
1: true,
_13
0: false
_13
}
_13
_13
// Assign new values for the keys `1` and `0`.
_13
//
_13
booleans[1] = false
_13
booleans[0] = true
_13
// `booleans` is `{1: false, 0: true}`

Dictionary Fields and Functions​


  • _10
    let length: Int

    The number of entries in the dictionary.


    _10
    // Declare a dictionary mapping strings to integers.
    _10
    let numbers = {"fortyTwo": 42, "twentyThree": 23}
    _10
    _10
    // Find the number of entries of the dictionary.
    _10
    let length = numbers.length
    _10
    _10
    // `length` is `2`


  • _10
    fun insert(key: K, _ value: V): V?

    Inserts the given value of type V into the dictionary under the given key of type K.

    The inserted key must have the same type as the dictionary's key type, and the inserted value must have the same type as the dictionary's value type.

    Returns the previous value as an optional if the dictionary contained the key, otherwise nil.

    Updates the value if the dictionary already contained the key.

    This function mutates the dictionary.


    _11
    // Declare a dictionary mapping strings to integers.
    _11
    let numbers = {"twentyThree": 23}
    _11
    _11
    // Insert the key `"fortyTwo"` with the value `42` into the dictionary.
    _11
    // The key did not previously exist in the dictionary,
    _11
    // so the result is `nil`
    _11
    //
    _11
    let old = numbers.insert(key: "fortyTwo", 42)
    _11
    _11
    // `old` is `nil`
    _11
    // `numbers` is `{"twentyThree": 23, "fortyTwo": 42}`


  • _10
    fun remove(key: K): V?

    Removes the value for the given key of type K from the dictionary.

    Returns the value of type V as an optional if the dictionary contained the key, otherwise nil.

    This function mutates the dictionary.


    _19
    // Declare a dictionary mapping strings to integers.
    _19
    let numbers = {"fortyTwo": 42, "twentyThree": 23}
    _19
    _19
    // Remove the key `"fortyTwo"` from the dictionary.
    _19
    // The key exists in the dictionary,
    _19
    // so the value associated with the key is returned.
    _19
    //
    _19
    let fortyTwo = numbers.remove(key: "fortyTwo")
    _19
    _19
    // `fortyTwo` is `42`
    _19
    // `numbers` is `{"twentyThree": 23}`
    _19
    _19
    // Remove the key `"oneHundred"` from the dictionary.
    _19
    // The key does not exist in the dictionary, so `nil` is returned.
    _19
    //
    _19
    let oneHundred = numbers.remove(key: "oneHundred")
    _19
    _19
    // `oneHundred` is `nil`
    _19
    // `numbers` is `{"twentyThree": 23}`


  • _10
    let keys: [K]

    Returns an array of the keys of type K in the dictionary. This does not modify the dictionary, just returns a copy of the keys as an array. If the dictionary is empty, this returns an empty array. The ordering of the keys is undefined.


    _10
    // Declare a dictionary mapping strings to integers.
    _10
    let numbers = {"fortyTwo": 42, "twentyThree": 23}
    _10
    _10
    // Find the keys of the dictionary.
    _10
    let keys = numbers.keys
    _10
    _10
    // `keys` has type `[String]` and is `["fortyTwo","twentyThree"]`


  • _10
    let values: [V]

    Returns an array of the values of type V in the dictionary. This does not modify the dictionary, just returns a copy of the values as an array. If the dictionary is empty, this returns an empty array.

    This field is not available if V is a resource type.


    _10
    // Declare a dictionary mapping strings to integers.
    _10
    let numbers = {"fortyTwo": 42, "twentyThree": 23}
    _10
    _10
    // Find the values of the dictionary.
    _10
    let values = numbers.values
    _10
    _10
    // `values` has type [Int] and is `[42, 23]`


  • _10
    fun containsKey(key: K): Bool

    Returns true if the given key of type K is in the dictionary.


    _15
    // Declare a dictionary mapping strings to integers.
    _15
    let numbers = {"fortyTwo": 42, "twentyThree": 23}
    _15
    _15
    // Check if the dictionary contains the key "twentyFive".
    _15
    let containsKeyTwentyFive = numbers.containsKey("twentyFive")
    _15
    // `containsKeyTwentyFive` is `false`
    _15
    _15
    // Check if the dictionary contains the key "fortyTwo".
    _15
    let containsKeyFortyTwo = numbers.containsKey("fortyTwo")
    _15
    // `containsKeyFortyTwo` is `true`
    _15
    _15
    // Invalid: Check if the dictionary contains the key 42.
    _15
    // This results in a type error, as the key type of the dictionary is `String`.
    _15
    //
    _15
    let containsKey42 = numbers.containsKey(42)


  • _10
    fun forEachKey(_ function: ((K): Bool)): Void

    Iterate through all the keys in the dictionary, exiting early if the passed function returns false. This is more efficient than calling .keys and iterating over the resulting array, since an intermediate allocation is avoided. The order of key iteration is undefined, similar to .keys.


    _18
    // Take in a targetKey to look for, and a dictionary to iterate through.
    _18
    fun myContainsKey(targetKey: String, dictionary: {String: Int}) {
    _18
    // Declare an accumulator that we'll capture inside a closure.
    _18
    var found = false
    _18
    _18
    // At each step, `key` will be bound to another key from `dictionary`.
    _18
    dictionary.forEachKey(fun (key: String): Bool {
    _18
    found = key == targetKey
    _18
    _18
    // The returned boolean value, signals whether to continue iterating.
    _18
    // This allows for control flow during the iteration process:
    _18
    // true = `continue`
    _18
    // false = `break`
    _18
    return !found
    _18
    })
    _18
    _18
    return found
    _18
    }

Dictionary Keys​

Dictionary keys must be hashable and equatable.

Most of the built-in types, like booleans and integers, are hashable and equatable, so can be used as keys in dictionaries.